Author(s)

Lisha Liao ¹

Affiliation(s)

¹ Department of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China

Corresponding Author

Lisha Liao

ABSTRACT

Mirror confusion in writing and reading is a common phenomenon. This paper further put forward the concept of mirror recognition which differs from mirror reading. In addition, this paper also lists the statistical learning hypothesis, implicit right writing Rule hypothesis and neuron re-use hypothesis of mirror confusion, as well as three factors related to mirror confusion: gene, handedness and intelligence.

KEYWORDS

mirror writing, mirror reading and recognition

CITE THIS PAPER

Lisha Liao, Mirror Confusion in Reading and Writing and Its Related Principles. Advances in Educational Technology and Psychology (2021) 5: 37-45. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.23977/aetp.2021.51006

REFERENCES

[1] Erlikhman, G., Strother, L., Barzakov, I., & Caplovitz, G. (2017). On the Legibility of Mirror-Reflected and Rotated Text. Symmetry, 9(3), 28. 
[2] Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Orlando, C., Harris, K. S., & Berti, F. B. (1971). Letter Confusions and Reversals of Sequence in the Begining Reader: Implications for Orton’S Theory of Developmental Dyslexia. Cortex, 7(2), 127–142. 
[3] Stanovich, K. E. (1985). Explaining the variance in reading ability in terms of psychological processes: What have we learned? Annals of Dyslexia, 35(1), 67–96.
[4] Gibson, E. P., Gibson, J. J., Pick, A. D., & Osser, H. (1962). A developmental study of the discrimination of letter-like forms. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55(6), 897–906.
[5] Vellutino, F. R. , Scanlon, D. M. , Desetto, L. , & Pruzek, R. M. . (1981). Developmental trends in the salience of meaning versus structural attributes of written words. Psychological Research, 43(2), 131-153.
[6] Wolff, P. H. , & Melngailis, I. . (1996). Reversing letters and reading transformed text in dyslexia: a reassessment. Reading & Writing, 8(4), 341-355.
[7] Buchwald, A. (1878). Spiegelschrift bei Hirnkranken [Mirror writing by patients with cerebral lesions]. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 5(1), 6–8.
[8] Ahr, E. , Olivier Houdé, & Grégoire Borst. (2017). Predominance of lateral over vertical mirror errors in reading: a case for neuronal recycling and inhibition. Brain and Cognition, 116, 1-8.
[9] Hildreth, G Reversals in reading and writing. (1934). Journal of Educational Psychology,25(1): 1-20
[10] Rollenhagen, J.E., Olson, C.R. (2000). Mirror-image confusion in single neurons of the macaque inferotemporal cortex. Science 287, 1506– 1508.
[11] Hollard, V.D., Delius, J.D. (1982). Rotational invariance in visual pattern recognition by pigeons and humans. Science 218, 804–806
[12] Bornstein,M.H.,Gross,C.G., & Wolf,J.Z. (1978).Perceptual similarity ofmirror images in infancy. Cognition 6, 89-116.
[13] Stevens, N.J., Seiffert, E.R., O’Connor, P.M., Roberts, E.M., Schmitz, M.D., Krause, C., Gorscak, E., Ngasala, S., Hieronymus, T.L., and Temu, J. (2013). Palaeontological evidence for an Oligocene divergence between Old World monkeys and apes. Nature 497, 611–614.
[14] Dehaene, S., Nakamura, K., Jobert, A., Kuroki, C., Ogawa, S., & Cohen, L. (2010). Why do children make mirror errors in reading? Neural correlates of mirror invariance in the visual word form area. NeuroImage, 49(2), 1837–1848. 
[15] Pegado, F. , Nakamura, K. , Braga, L. W. , Ventura, P. , Nunes Filho, G. , & Pallier, C. , et al. (2014). Literacy breaks mirror invariance for visual stimuli: a behavioral study with adult illiterates. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 143(2), 887-894.
[16] Dilks, D.D., Julian, J.B., Kubilius, J., Spelke, E.S., & Kanwisher, N. (2011). Mirror-image sensitivity and invariance in object and scene processing pathways. J. Neurosci. 31, 11305–11312.
[17] Borst, G., Ahr, E., Roell, M., & Houdé, O. (2015). The cost of blocking the mirror generalization process in reading: Evidence for the role of inhibitory control in discriminating letters with lateral mirror-image counterparts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(1), 228–234. 
[18] Fernandes, T., & Kolinsky, R. (2013). From hand to eye: The role of literacy, familiarity, graspability, and vision-for-action on enantiomorphy. Acta Psychologica, 142(1), 51–61. 
[19] Vuilleumier, P., Schwartz, S., Duhoux, S., Dolan, R.J., & Driver, J. (2005). Selective attention modulates neural substrates of repetition priming and ‘‘implicit’’ visual memory: suppressions and enhancements revealed by FMRI. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 17, 1245–1260.
[20] Kolinsky, R., Verhaeghe, A., Fernandes, T., Mengarda, E. J., Grimm-Cabral, L., & Morais, J. (2011). Enantiomorphy through the looking glass: Literacy effects on mirror-image discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(2), 210–238. 
[21] Pegado, F., Nakamura, K., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S. (2011). Breaking the symmetry: mirror discrimination for single letters but not for pictures in the Visual Word Form Area. Neuroimage 55, 742–749
[22] Dong,Y., Fukuyama, H,Honda,M., Okada,T.Hanakawa,T, & Nakamura,K., et al. (2000). Essential role of the right superior parietal cortex in Japanese kana mirror reading:An fMRI study. Brain,123:790-799
[23] Gottfried, J. A., Sancar, F., & Chatterjee, A. (2003). Acquired mirror writing and reading: Evidence for reflected graphemic representations. Neuropsychologia, 41(1), 96–107. 
[24] Casey, M. B. (1984). Individual differences in use of left–right visual cues: A reexamination of mirror-image confusions in preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 20(4), 551–559. 
[25] Frith, U. (1971). WHY DO CHILDREN REVERSE LETTERS? British Journal of Psychology, 62(4), 459–468. 
[26] Lachmann, T., & Geyer, T. (2003). Letter reversals in dyslexia: Is the case really closed? A critical review and conclusions. Psychology Science, 45, 50-70.
[27] Terepocki, M., Kruk, R. S., & Willows, D. M. (2002). The Incidence and Nature of Letter Orientation Errors in Reading Disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(3), 214–233. 
[28] Cohn, M., & Stricker, G. (1979). Reversal Errors in Strong, Average, and Weak Letter Namers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12(8), 533–537. 
[29] Hildreth, G Reversals in reading and writing. (1934). Journal of Educational Psychology,25(1): 1-20
[30] Danziger, E., & Pederson, E. (1998). Through the Looking Glass: Literacy, Writing Systems and Mirror-Image Discrimination. Written Language & Literacy, 1(2), 153–169. 
[31] Kolinsky, R. , & Fernandes, T. (2014). A cultural side effect: Learning to read interferes with identity processing of familiar objects. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.
[32] van Paridon, J., Ostarek, M., Arunkumar, M., & Huettig, F. (2019). Learning to read does not compete with face and object recognition [Preprint]. 
[33] Pederson, E. (2003). Mirror-image discrimination among nonliterate, monoliterate, and biliterate Tamil subjects. Written Language & Literacy, 6(1), 71–91. 
[34] Gottfried, J. A., Sancar, F., & Chatterjee, A. (2003). Acquired mirror writing and reading: Evidence for reflected graphemic representations. Neuropsychologia, 41(1), 96–107. 
[35] Mcintosh, R. D. , Hillary, K. , Brennan, A. , & Lechowicz, M. . (2018). Developmental mirror-writing is paralleled by orientation recognition errors. Laterality, 1-20.
[36] Schott, G. D. (2007). Mirror writing: Neurological reflections on an unusual phenomenon. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 78(1), 5–13. 
[37] Xinde, Wang, Dantao, Peng, Xiaojie, & Cai, et al. (2007). Mirror writing in elderly patients with alzheimer disease and vascular dementia. Neural Regeneration Research, 04, 62-64.
[38] Fleming, B. , & Adamides, A. A. . (2019). Mirror writing after perimesencephalic subarachnoid haemorrhage. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 64.
[39] Fernandes, T. , Arunkumar, M. , & Huettig, F. . (2021). The role of the written script in shaping mirror-image discrimination: evidence from illiterate, tamil literate, and tamil-latin-alphabet bi-literate adults. Cognition, 206, 104493.
[40] Soares, A. P. , Lages, A. , Oliveira, H. , & Hernández, Juan. (2019). The mirror reflects more for 'd' than for 'b': right-asymmetry bias on the visual recognition of words containing reversal letters. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 182, 18-37.
[41] Mather, D. S. . (2012). Ipsilateral printing in children's mirror-writing: a cause of specific learning disabilities?. Canadian journal of experimental psychology = Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 66(3), 172-80.
[42] Brennan, A.(2012),Mirror writing and hand dominance in children: a new perspective on motor and perceptual theories. Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology, 4.12-23.
[43] Sergio, Della, Sala, Roberto, & Cubelli. (2007). Directional apraxia: a unitary account of mirror writing following brain injury or as found in normal young children. Journal of Neuropsychology.
[44] Fischer, J. P. , & Tazouti, Y. . (2012). Unraveling the mystery of mirror writing in typically developing children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(1), págs. 193-205.
[45] Roberto, CubelliSergio, Della, & Sala. (2009). Mirror writing in pre-school children: a pilot study. Cognitive Processing.
[46] Fischer, J. P. , & Koch, A. M. . (2016). Mirror writing in typically developing children: a first longitudinal study. Cognitive Development, 38, 114-124.
[47] Fischer, J.-P. (2011). Mirror writing of digits and (capital) letters in the typically developing child. Cortex, 47(6), 759–762. 
[48] Li, X., Xu, Z., Cui, Y., Wu, R., Guan, D., & Dong, J.. (1989). A study of mirror writing in children. Journal of psychology, (03), 254–260. 
[49] Treiman, R., & Kessler, B.. (2011). Similarities among the shapes of writing and their effects on learning. other, 14(1).
[50] Treiman, R. Gordon.J. Boada, R., Peterson, R. L., & Pennington, B. F. (2014). Statistical learning, letter reversals, and reading. Scientific Studies of Reading. 18(6).383-394.
[51] Fischer, J.-P. (2013). Digit reversal in children’s writing: A simple theory and its empirical validation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115(2), 356–370.
[52] Dehaene, S.(2004).Evolution of human cortical circuits for reading and arithmetic: The "neuronal recycling" hypothesis. From monkey brain to human brain (pp.133-158).
[53] Hauser, M. D. , Chomsky, N. , & Fitch, W. T. . (2002). The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve?. Science, 298(5598), p.1569-1579.
[54] Ungerleider, L. (1994). ‘What’ and ‘where’ in the human brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 4(2), 157–165. 
[55] Ungerleider,L.G. &Mishkin,M. (1982). Two cortical visual systems. In Analysis of visual behavior, pp. 549–586. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
[56] Biederman, I., & Cooper, E. E. (1991). Evidence for Complete Translational and Reflectional Invariance in Visual Object Priming. Perception, 20(5), 585–593. 
[57] Cohen, L. , Dehaene, S. , Naccache, L. , Lehericy, S. , Dehaene-Lambertz, G. , & Henaff, M. A. , et al. (2000). The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients. Brain, 123(2), 291-307.
[58] Cohen, & L. (2002). Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? functional properties of the visual word form area. Brain, 125(5), 1054-1069.
[59] Dehaene, S., Le Clec’H, G., Poline, J.-B., Le Bihan, D., & Cohen, L. (2002). The visual word form area: A prelexical representation of visual words in the fusiform gyrus. Neuroreport, 13(3), 321–325. 
[60] Gauthier, I., Tarr, M. J., Moylan, J. , Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Anderson, A. W.. (2000). The fusiform "face area" is part of a network that processes faces at the individual level. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(3), 495-504.
[61] de Heering, A., Collignon, O., & Kolinsky, R. (2018). Blind readers break mirror invariance as sighted do. Cortex, 101, 154–162. 
[62] Balfour, S., Borthwick, S., Cubelli, R., & Sala, S. D.. (2007). Mirror writing and reversing single letters in stroke patients and normal elderly. Journal of Neurology, 254(4), 436-41.
[63] Orton, S. T. (1928). Specific Reading Disability-strerphosymbolia. The Journal of the American Medical Associatiom, 90(14), 1095-1099.
[64] Corballis, M. C., & Beale, I. L.. (1976). The Psychology of Left and Right. London : Larurence Erlbaum.
[65] Yang, M.-J. (1997). Mirror writing in right-handers and in left-handers: A study using chinese characters. Neuropsychologia, 35(11), 1491–1498. 
[66] Tashiro, K., Matsumoto, A., Hamada, T., & Moriwaka, F.. (1987). The aetiology of mirror writing: a new hypothesis. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 50(12), 1572.
[67] Mathewson, I. (2004). Mirror writing ability is genetic and probably transmitted as a sex-linked dominant trait: It is hypothesised that mirror writers have bilateral language centres with a callosal interconnection. Medical Hypotheses, 62(5), 733–739.
[68] Schott, G. D. , & Schott, J. M. . (2004). Mirror writing, left-handedness, and leftward scripts. Archives of Neurology, 61(12), 1849-51.
[69] Tankle, R. S., & Heilman, K. M.. (1983). Mirror writing in right-handers and in left-handers. Brain and Lang, 19(1), 115-123.
[70] Tucha, O., Aschenbrenner, S., & Lange, K. W.. (2000). Mirror writing and handedness. Brain & Language, 73(3), 432-441.

Sponsors, Associates, and Links

---

• Curriculum and Teaching Methodology
  
  
• Transactions on Comparative Education
  
  
• Applied & Educational Psychology
  
  
• Advances in Vocational and Technical Education
  
  
• Adult and Higher Education